Practices Related to the Warp-Weighted Loom in Sápmi

Highly skilled practitioners

Highly skilled practitioners are affiliated with Manndalen Husflidslag.

Knowledge transfer

Knowledge transfer in rátnu gođđin (grene weaving) traditionally takes place through practical participation and oral transmission, deeply rooted in Sámi values, language, and traditions. Traditionally, it was often young girls who learned the weaving process around the age of 16, but today this transfer of knowledge occurs regardless of age and gender, as soon as interest and desire arise. Although grene weaving has historically been considered primarily women's work, men have also woven. There were obvious practical advantages to having as many family members as possible contribute to the weaving process.

Traditionally, this learning began in the home as a natural part of growing up. Since the warp-weighted loom was placed in the living room or the gamme (turf hut), children grew up with the craft as an integrated part of their everyday environment. Through childhood observation, they acquired an intuitive understanding of the rhythm and logic of weaving simply by watching the adults work. Subsequently, they were gradually included in the process through simple, practical tasks, usually starting with preparatory work such as sorting raw wool by quality, carding the wool, or holding the yarn during winding.

When the actual weaving begins, it takes place under the close, individual guidance of an experienced culture bearer. The instructor stands physically beside the loom, giving direct guidance to correct the apprentice's hand placement, demonstrating the exact tensioning of the thread, and showing how to push the weft upward with the fingers. This training is about developing physical fingertip sensitivity and tacit knowledge. The apprentice must learn to sense exactly how tight the warp needs to be, ensuring the tension is completely uniform so the blanket does not risk becoming skielgá (crooked/uneven) during the process.
This practical training is intrinsically linked to Sámi culture, identity, and language transmission, where the tangible and intangible are woven together in the same act. By consistently using the specific Sámi terms for tools and techniques, the culture bearer transmits not just technical instructions, but also an understanding of the rátnu's (the blanket's) function and its central place in Sámi culture. Over time, the weaving process has served as an important verbal arena; while working on carding, spinning, and weaving, stories, experiences, and local history were often shared. In this way, the crafting environment becomes a space for transferring collective memory and values, rooted in the Sámi worldview.

To adapt the tradition to modern society and ensure its continuation in environments where the loom is no longer a part of everyday life, traditional learning contexts have been expanded through modern revitalisation efforts. Local organisations, practitioners, and handicraft associations—with Manndalen Husflidslag as a key player—now organise formal, structured courses and themed evenings. These initiatives carry the tradition forward to new generations and to those who did not grow up with rátnu gođđin (grene weaving) in their living rooms. Today, traditional oral and tactile transmission is also supplemented by modern documentation, where the systematic use of video and photography serves as a crucial educational support tool, ensuring that the finer details of the craft are preserved for the future.

Historical background

Rátnu (grene) – rátnogođđin (grene weaving) – The Sámi warp-weighted loom has been widespread and present in Sápmi since time immemorial. According to researchers, this weaving technique was introduced to the Sámi through contact with their Nordic neighbours as early as the 6th century AD. This textile art has evolved in parallel with sheep farming in the northernmost Sámi communities. In certain areas, grene weaving became an inseparable part of Sámi culture, gaining immense cultural and economic significance in many Coastal Sámi districts. Grenes were also woven sporadically among nomadic Reindeer Sámi in Finnmark and among the Skolt Sámi, who today live in Če´vetjäu´rr/Sevettijärvi and Nellim on the Finnish side (Haugen 1987:200).

Today, we find an unbroken tradition of grene weaving in Olmmáivággi/Manndalen in Gáivuotna/Kåfjord on the Norwegian side, and in Če´vetjäu´rr/Sevettijärvi on the Finnish side. The work of Olmmáivákki duodjesearvi / Manndalen Husflidslag has been crucial in preserving this cultural tradition rooted in prehistoric times. They have adapted the use of grenes to our modern era, driven by the belief that grene weaving can only be preserved for posterity by holding fast to the foundational principles of the weaving method (Hætta 2007:95).

Historical Background
Within a society, traditional knowledge and practices form deep, valuable bonds between generations. These passed-down skills foster identity, belonging, and a community where knowledge is shared, adapted, and carried forward in harmony with the rhythms of nature and societal needs. In a Sámi context, duodji (Sámi handicraft) is closely linked to local natural resources, which provide the materials and shape specific techniques. The duojár (artisan/practitioner) bases their craft on a profound understanding of materials and technical insight into the working processes. In this way, duodji constitutes an intangible cultural heritage that supports the Sámi community's relationship with the environment and ensures cultural sustainability in everyday life. Duodji is not just a practical act; it is a living tradition that strengthens bonds with nature, reinforces human solidarity, and brings meaning to daily life.

A duodji object like a rátnu (grene) involves far more than the weaving itself and the finished product; it is a holistic process that spans a long period of time. This means the weaver must understand how wool quality varies throughout the year, when the wool should be shorn, sorted, carded, and spun into different yarn types, and which techniques to apply throughout the entire process. Only when this groundwork is complete can the rátnu be warped, the loom set up, and the weaving begin. The duodji process is not merely a technical execution; it carries traditional knowledge, identity, and a sense of belonging. It is this deep understanding of both the material and the craft that allows the tradition to live on and strengthen intergenerational community ties.

The Sea Sámi have been settled for centuries, and their duodji traditions, livelihoods, and resource management are traditionally tied to self-sufficiency and traditional occupations like small-scale farming, fishing, and hunting/trapping—where physical and spiritual contact with nature was necessary for survival. Grene weaving creates close connections between people and place because the entire weaving process is entirely local. Deep roots in and connections to their surroundings, alongside the fact that sheep made the people self-sufficient in wool, are highly significant reasons why this ancient cultural tradition is still kept alive in Olmmáivággi/Manndalen.

The Warp-Weighted Loom in Historical Context
Grene weaving is a locally and culturally adapted variation of a very ancient weaving method performed on a warp-weighted loom. The warp-weighted loom, featuring a vertical weaving frame and warp weights made of stone or fired clay, is the oldest known weaving method in Europe. It was widespread across vast areas and can be traced far back in time and space, from ancient Greece up to Denmark, Iceland, and Scandinavia in the Bronze Age. Finds have been tracked to Asia Minor and can be dated as far back as around 3000 BC. The first reliable datings of clay warp weights are from 3000–2700 BC in Troy, and from roughly the same period in Anatolia and Megiddo in Israel. Classical scholars and textile historians have noted that the looms depicted on Greek vases and described in classical antiquity sources, such as Homer's Odyssey, are identical to the northern warp-weighted loom (Hoffmann [1964] 1974:297-336).
The terminology of the warp-weighted loom has spread through several languages, indicating its age and widespread use. Research by linguist and cultural scholar Asbjørn Nesheim shows that the Sea Sámi adopted the weaving technique early on from their Norse neighbours, evidenced by Proto-Norse loanwords within Sámi grene terminology (Nesheim 1954:325-341).

Written sources mentioning the Sámi warp-weighted loom—the grene loom—prove that grene weaving among the Sámi can be traced back several centuries. From the 1500s, grenes are mentioned in tax accounts, examination protocols, and commission reports in connection with trade in fishing villages. More detailed descriptions are found in the records of the king's emissaries to Finnmark, making these central sources for understanding the region's history. Hans Hansen Lilienskiold, governor of Finnmark from 1684 to 1701, praised Sámi women for their self-sufficiency in his 1690 descriptions of Finnmark, Speculum Boreale. He noted, among other things, that they created wool blankets (grenes) used as bedspreads (Lilienskiold, Hans H. Speculum Boreale, edited by O. Solberg 1942:148). Another description was provided by Knud Leem, a pastor, missionary, and linguist who arrived in Finnmark in 1725. His compiled ethnological material, Beskrivelser over Finmarkens Lapper (Descriptions of the Finnmark Lapps), contains more detailed accounts of grene weaving and its use from Porsanger. His description of the grene weaving technique illustrates that it has remained unchanged since the 1600s. We also recognise Leem's descriptions of colour usage and pattern stripes, even though the grene has been adapted to new times and markets over the centuries (Leem 1767:369-375).

The Expression of the Rátnu
During the interwar years, folklife researchers and textile historians showed a growing interest in ancient weaving techniques. What particularly fascinated them about the Sámi warp-weighted loom was the unique warping method that gives the grenes three closed selvedges (finished edges). Archaeologists had long tried to understand how the warp was woven using a rigid heddle loom. The Sámi, however, had adopted the niikun (rigid heddle loom) early on for weaving bands; among others, Knud Leem describes and illustrates women's use of a niikun made of reindeer antler to weave their shoebands (Leem 1767:369-375). The exact same type of rigid heddle loom and technique is used to weave the grene's várfi (top selvedge band).
Just before and after World War II, folklife researcher Anna Grostøl (1894–1962) travelled around Troms and Finnmark, interviewing people, photographing, and filming old handicraft techniques that she believed were on the verge of disappearing. Here, she saw how the nomadic Sámi's bealjjegoahti (winter tent) featured tent cloths sewn together from thick wool blankets with selvedges on three sides. She recorded the difference between grene weaving and the Nordic warp-weighted loom. The Sámi wool blanket featured a transverse selvedge, functioned as a practical everyday object, and used natural stones as weights to keep the warp taut.

Another scholar with a deep interest in the Sámi warp-weighted loom was Dr. Philos. Martha Hoffmann (1913–2001), senior curator at the Norsk Folkemuseum. She believed that the Sámi grene loom, as it was known among Sea Sámi in Norway and Skolt Sámi in Finland, was highly interesting from both a craft and a historical perspective (Hoffmann 1974:156).

According to Martha Hoffmann and Asbjørn Nesheim, specific features make grene weaving a uniquely Sámi speciality. The warping method using a heading band, várfi, woven on a rigid heddle loom to give the grenes three finished selvedges, is today considered an identifying criterion for the traditional Sámi grene weaving technique—and the Sámi are the only people who still practice this warping method.
Another defining feature is the use of unworked natural stones to keep the warp vertically taut. The Sámi have not used fired clay weights or stones modified with drilled holes, such as those found in more southern regions. Furthermore, there is no indication that the Sámi wove anything other than grenes on the warp-weighted loom. Hoffmann argued that the Sámi's textile needs differed from those in the rest of Europe. They wore leather and fur clothing summer and winter, and had no need to weave vadmel (woollen cloth) or more intricate clothing fabrics on the warp-weighted loom (Hoffmann 1977:127).

Cultural and Economic Significance
The economic significance of grene weaving in Sea Sámi areas also provides insight into its usage and spread. Historical sources detail how Sámi grenes were used as blankets to sleep under in tents, gammer (turf huts), and houses. In Leem's descriptions, grenes are used as a "thick blanket on top of the fur pelt when a Coastal Lapp lies in his hut or a Mountain Lapp in his tent and sleeps" (Leem 1767/1975:108). Leem also provides detailed descriptions of grenes being used as tent cloths for winter tents (Om Lappernes Boliger [On the Dwellings of the Lapps], Leem 1767:88-108). For a rátnoloavdda (tent cloth), they were particularly well-suited due to the heat-insulating properties of wool, even when damp. Anywhere from 6 to 8 large grenes could be used for a single winter tent, plus an extra one for the door. The grene for the door was laid out in a pyramid shape and sewn with transverse wooden splints to maintain its form (Haugen 1987:201).

Throughout the 1800s, the market for grenes grew steadily; they were used during travels, in horse-drawn sledges by transport drivers, and in reindeer sledges by mountain-dwelling Sámi. They were part of the standard equipment in fishing environments, where they were often referred to as "Finne" grenes. Accounts from the Kola Peninsula even mention that they could function as sails when necessary (Nesheim 1954:323; Niemi 1984:448).

Markets were natural gathering places for trade and barter. Important markets for the people of Nord-Troms were held in Skibotn and Bossekop in Alta three times a year: autumn, midwinter, and spring. Mountain Sámi came to these market days with reindeer meat, hides, and other products, while Coastal Sámi arrived from the fjords with wool goods and fish. Markets were major events where Sámi from the coast and mountains enjoyed meeting. Here, they also encountered merchants and buyers from Finland, Sweden, and Norway.

From Kåfjord, local merchants and buyers—both women and men—travelled with grenes and other wool commodities that were traded in large quantities. Barter and private sales of grenes between nomadic and settled Sea Sámi were widespread. For the Sea Sámi, grenes took on greater economic significance as the value of the blankets as barter and trade items rose. People wove less for personal use, and grenes were increasingly used as a medium of exchange and sold for cash.

At the same time, grene weaving reflects the culture and living conditions of the entire Sámi population from a historical perspective, highlighting mutual economic and human encounters and connections between different groups of people and ways of life. For centuries, the grene loom held great significance for the Sámi across the entire Cap of the North. Grene weaving provided the Sea Sámi with a reliable source of income, largely driven by the Mountain Sámi's constant need for ránut (grenes) for blankets and rátnolovdda (tent cloth), as well as others' need for warm blankets.

New Times, New Markets
The Norwegianization policy (fornorskingspolitikken) and post-World War II societal changes—such as increased urbanisation, new educational systems, and shifts in industry—reshaped the structure of life in Nord-Troms and Finnmark. Cultural heritage was threatened by the loss of the Sámi language, traditions, and local customs. When the population returned following the wartime evacuation, their settlements had been reduced to ashes. In Manndalen and Skardalen, a few women revived grene weaving; they could build the looms themselves, found stones on the shoreline, and eventually acquired some sheep. However, the traditional market had shrunk significantly. The housing forms of the nomadic Sámi were modernised, and the grene went out of use as a tent cloth during the 1950s. Since their primary customers, the Reindeer Sámi, no longer had the same need for grenes, and the markets in Skibotn and Bossekop simultaneously came to an end, demand dwindled, making grene weaving less profitable to pursue.

Grene weaving lay nearly dormant from 1945 until the mid-1950s, and it did not recover significantly until after Martha Hoffmann's study visit to Manndalen in 1955. Hoffmann's interest in local duodji traditions and weaving techniques sparked renewed interest and activity. In 1964, her thesis The Warp Weighted Loom was published. Hoffmann placed the grene into a historical perspective, creating renewed international attention for the Sámi warp-weighted loom.

Following Hoffmann's initiative, the Norsk Folkemuseum offered to facilitate the sale of grenes at no cost to the weavers. This was of invaluable importance to the development of grene weaving in the 1950s. Grenes had always held significant economic value, and this new market once again provided a cash supplement to households, encouraging more people to take up grene weaving again (Digre, Trollvik 1996:32-33; Mikalsen 1985:179).

New customer groups brought new requirements for the blankets. Previously, when grenes were used as blankets and tent cloths, perfect execution was not vital—they simply needed to be thick and large enough. The new market used the grene as a decorative textile, which demanded a different level of refinement, though prices eventually improved to reflect this (Mikalsen 1975:39).

Continuity and Change
Changes in the design of the grene resulted from market demand. Nevertheless, the traditional weaving method and use of materials have not been altered by these new areas of application. The materials for grenes cannot be bought in a store; if a weaver cannot spin the yarn themselves, they must get other skilled craftspeople to spin it for them, because hand-spun yarn is still required for both the warp and the weft.
Olmmáivákki duodjesearvi / Manndalen Husflidslag was founded in 1966, and one of the requirements in its bylaws was: "to preserve local models and patterns. This applies first and foremost to the Manndalen grenes, the grene loom, the warping frame, and the ancient technique" (Digre, Trollvik 1996:42). The women of Manndalen recognised the importance of preserving Sámi traditions and knowledge, not just for the Sámi themselves, but as part of a shared historical heritage. They decided to take control of their own cultural heritage and established their own rules to safeguard it.

The grene weaving tradition is part of our collective Sámi cultural heritage. The immense, untiring work of Manndalen Husflidslag to preserve and pass down the ancient cultural tradition of the grene loom has been definitive in ensuring that grene weaving remains a living tradition today. Managing traditional knowledge also carries a responsibility to communicate and transfer that knowledge.
In Gáivuotna/Kåfjord, the grene is one of our most vital living Sámi cultural traditions. Viewed from a historical and Sámi perspective, it is by no means self-evident that this duodji tradition has survived in Olmmáivággi/Manndalen up to the present day. The Norwegianization policy, societal changes, and modernisation, particularly after World War II, led to the loss of much tangible and intangible Sámi cultural heritage, along with the traditional knowledge that explains how nature serves as a prerequisite for maintaining cultural practices.
Sources

See, for example: Sámi Giellaguovddáš / Samisk Språksenter 1999. Lappernes forhold. Written down 1896–98 by schoolteacher Ole Thomassen regarding Lyngen and Porsanger municipalities. Gáivuona suohkan / Kåfjord kommune. GrafiskNord, Finnsnes. pp. 41–43.
Anna Grostøl's textile collection: https://www.arkivportalen.no/entity/no-nf_arkiv000000004051?ins=NF
Photos and film: https://digitaltmuseum.no
Bealjjegoahti / winter tent: The tent framework features a load-bearing construction consisting of curved poles, cross-beams, and tent poles. The tent cloth was traditionally made of grenes and vadmel. See, for example: Sjølie Randi 2016. Byggeskikk i Sápmi. Čállid lágádus-Forfatternes Forlag. Kárášjohka-Karasjok. pp. 36–37.

Plan for preservation

Future Prospects, Strategies, and Objectives in Safeguarding Practices
The prospects for rátnu gođđin (grene weaving) depend heavily on measures to safeguard both the tangible and intangible knowledge within duodji (Sámi handicraft). An understanding of materials is crucial, and processing raw wool provides vital insight into handling it for an optimal result. This requires close familiarity with traditional materials and techniques, which are transmitted through collaboration with experienced culture bearers. Since parts of this foundational knowledge are currently less practised, systematic documentation work is being prioritised. A specific goal is to reactivate knowledge related to the preparation of materials—a process that takes two to three weeks.

Duodji is deeply linked to several local areas of knowledge, such as landscape, resource management, and livelihoods. The safeguarding work raises questions about how patterns, colour usage, and materials change, and what values accompany these transformations. Through this safeguarding effort, new questions emerge regarding both tangible and intangible cultural heritage. For example, we must examine how patterns, colour usage, and the utilization of local materials have changed, and what values and stories accompany these shifts in tradition. These questions are important because they help us understand both the craft itself and its significance for Sámi identity and local culture. The project must delve deeply into the entire grene weaving process to develop a broader understanding of traditions, knowledge, and historical contexts. This provides insight into what should be investigated further and how knowledge can best be documented, preserved, and transmitted to future generations. The use of Sámi terminology in documentation is a key strategy for this knowledge transmission and sharing.

Measures for the Transmission and Safeguarding of Knowledge
The safeguarding plan is structured around three main pillars: documentation, training, and dissemination. Documentation preserves techniques, terminology, and processes for the future, while training initiatives provide essential hands-on experience. Dissemination aims to increase public awareness of the tradition and recruit new practitioners to ensure the craft remains a living part of Sámi cultural heritage. Manndalen Husflidslag is a central player in this effort through its course activities and the transfer of expertise.
These measures are specifically targeted toward transferring duodji processes to children and youth. This includes practical projects where participants, working alongside traditional craftspeople, learn resource gathering/harvesting and the construction of a warp-weighted loom according to traditional methods. Public activities are also organised to facilitate the exchange of experiences regarding duodji practice. To reach external audiences, exhibitions and strategies for digital and online dissemination are being developed. The preservation and active use of the Sámi language are fully integrated into this outreach, and instruction in Sámi is used to secure the continuity of the techniques. Through these initiatives—which include collaboration with educational and cultural-policy institutions—traditional concepts of place, time, and practice are presented in alignment with Indigenous concepts and cultural integrity.